Academic Writing Center

Organizational Structure of an Academic Paper

An academic paper’s organizational structure is more than just a document format or a collection of ideas given under several headings (introduction, method, etc.). Organizational structure also organizes our ideas so that the flow of ideas is conveyed (Ahmady et.al, 2016). It is crucial to note that adhering to an academic paper’s organizational structure is one approach for assisting writers to present their thoughts to the readers easily.

Among many organizational structures, the IMRaD or IMRaD(C) (Introduction, Methods, Results, Discussions, and Conclusions) format is the most widely applied one. Indeed, high-tier journals worldwide are found to adopt the IMRaD format for publication (Trinh et.al, 2020). However, you should be aware that there are several organizational structures format that you must follow based on the type of research that you undertake. Review articles, conceptual papers, or field studies are examples of those papers which do not follow IMRaD format.

Introduction

An introduction begins mostly with a context or domain of the study. You might see many papers’ Introduction begin with the broad point of view first before coming to a more specific idea. Indeed, an introduction is written from the general or broad ideas to the most narrowed (Todorovic, 2003). The shape of an introduction is usually associated with an upside-down triangle because the writer’s idea is getting more and more specific to the aim of the study. Hoghberg (2019) also associates the structure of a paper as an hour glass structure (see the picture above). As you can see on the picture above, the introduction begins with the background of what we know, what problems can be found, and what solution or aim to address the problems. To help you check your introduction, refer to some Introduction elements/ rhetorical moves adopted from some resources below.

Introduction elements/rhetorical moves adapted from Todorovic (2003):

• Description of the problem
• The current state of the research in the field
• Research gap (limitation of the current research or unanswered issue)
• The solution to the problem (the aim of the study)
• The rationale of how the solution can solve the problems or why it is important to be done
• Brief explanation of the study design

Introduction elements/ rhetorical moves adopted from Nair & Nair (2014):

• Nature of the study
• Description of the problem
• Review of literature-based about the problem
• Objectives of the study
• Explanation of any abbreviations and terms

Method

Method refers to a description of how a research is conducted. Method should cover all the things that the researcher does to collect data until how the data is analyzed. Method section should also cover necessary information so it can be repeated by future researchers who wish to do the same (Nair & Nair, 2014).  The elements covered in the Method section are presented below.

Method elements/ rhetorical moves adopted from Todorovic (2003):

• Study design
• Participants / subject of the study (sample size & characteristics)
• Materials used
• Data analysis

Method elements/ rhetorical moves adopted from Nair & Nair (2014):

• Study method / design.
• Materials used
• Study location if relevant
• Participants or subject of the study (people, animals, or plants) and how they are chosen
• Data analysis

Result

Result section presents the data or findings of the study. It reflects the answer to the aims or questions we seek in the introduction.  The result section should be written clearly and sufficiently because it is the essential part of a paper (Nair & Nair, 2014). To help you track your Result section, some elements adopted from Todorovic (2003) and Nair & Nair (2014) are provided below.

Result elements/ rhetorical moves adopted from Todorovic (2003):

• Characteristic of the data
• Presentation of the main data
• Tables to explain the summary of the data or good quality of illustrations (graphic, drawing, photographs, or micrograph) to point out the essential part of the data.

Result elements/ rhetorical moves adopted from Nair & Nair (2014):

• Presentation of the main and analyzed data.
• Tables and figures necessary for result interpretation

Discussions

As the heading implies, this section talks about how the writers discuss their results or findings.  It is usually considered as the most difficult section by many students who have done one-on-one consultation with us. You can refer to the elements presented in this page to help you differentiate the Result and Discussion section. In summary, the Discussion part delves deeper into your findings/results and what you may infer from those facts; it is not only about presenting the data as we normally do in the Result section.

Discussion Elements/ rhetorical moves adopted from Todorovic (2003):

• Summary of the Result section
• The importance of the result and its interpretation
• Strength and limitation of the study
• Implications of the research

Discussion elements/ rhetorical moves adopted from Nair & Nair (2014):

• Presentation of the result that relate to the introduction
• Interpretation of the result
• Theoretical background of the result
• Significance of the result
• Suggestions for future research

Conclusion

The conclusion of an academic paper usually refers back to what we have written previously. However, the Conclusion is not a repetition of the previous sections (Kurniawan et.al, 2019). To help you check your Conclusion, refer to the elements of Conclusion below.

Conclusion elements/ rhetorical moves adopted from Todorovic (2003):

• The main result of the study that answer the research questions / aims of the study
• The implication or significance of the result
• The limitations
• Suggestions for future research

Conclusion elements/ rhetorical moves adopted from Nair & Nair (2014):

• Study outcome
• Suggestion of the future research

References

Ahmady, Gholam, Mehrpour, Maryam, Nikooravesh, & Aghdas. (2016). Organizational Structure. Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences. 230. 10. 455-462. doi: 10.1016/j.sbspro.2016.09.057.

Hochberg, M. (2019). An Editor’s Guide to Writing and Publishing in Science. Oxford University Press.

Kurniawan, B. A., Warsono, Sutopo, D., & Fitriati, W.S. (2019). The Implementation of Effective Method for Writing Research Articles. International Journal of Scientific and Technology Research, 8(9). 1879-1883.

Nair, R.K.P, & Nair, D.V. (2014). Scientific Writing and Communication in Agriculture and Natural Resources. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-03101-9_2.

Todorovic, Ljubomir. (2003). Original (scientific) paper – the IMRAD layout. Archive of Oncology, 11(3). DOI:10.2298/AOO0303203T

Trinh, T.P.T., Tran, T., Nguyen T.T., Nghiem, T., Danh, N.N. (2020). Comparative Analysis of National and International Educational Science Articles in Vietnam: Evidence from the Introduction, Methods, Results, and Discussion Structure. European Journal of Education, 9(3), 1367-1376. DOI: 10.12973/eu-jer.9.3.1367.

IMRaD(C) Useful Links

1. “Writing a Scientific Research Report (IMRaD)” by George Mason University Writing Center
2. “Organization and Structure” by Purdue Online Writing Lab
3. “Writing a Science Report” by UNC Academic Writing Center
4. “Scientific Writing Structure (IMRaD) by UTSA Writing Center
5. “Writing a Scientific Research Article” by Colombia University

Meilisa Sindy Astika Ariyanto. August 1, 2021.

Abstract

An abstract is a compilation, summary, or short delineation of a complete text that covers the most important aspects of a text. As a result, an abstract is generally written last after you have completed the body of your paper so that you may incorporate the key components of your text. Background, aim and thesis statement, method, and results are the components found in an abstract (Bailey, 2015). Others may also include conclusions following the outcomes (SJSU Writing Center, 2020). Indeed, various publishers or journals have their own abstract forms; you should follow their standards and look for trends in the published papers in the journal or conference to which you are applying.

The Importance of an Abstract

Abstract will be the first thing the readers read. It serves as a summary so that readers know what they will be reading (Booth et.al, 2016). Furthermore, it can entice readers to continue reading the complete text or not (Greeny & Lidinsky, 2015). One thing to note, readers, can be an editor as well. They may determine whether to continue reviewing your manuscript based just on the abstract. So, it is worthwhile to devote effort crafting a decent and appealing abstract.

Types of Abstract

Based on their patterns, there are three kinds of abstract: CPM (Context, Problem, and Main point), CPL (Context, Problem, and Launching point), and CPSM (Context, Problem, Summary, and Main point) (Booth et.al, 2016). These three abstract patterns use context and problem as a background to introduce why the study is important. However, the CPM ends with the main point which may include the aim and result of the study (Read Abstract Sample 1). On the other hand, the CPL pattern does not put the result section into account, instead, it has the aim and method/stages to attract the readers. The absence of the result section may make the readers curious to continue reading the paper (Read Abstract Sample 2). Different from the first and the second one, the CPSM pattern includes all the components (Context, Problem Aim, Method, Result, and Main point) as a summary (Read Abstract Sample 3); other writers might know this as an informative abstract.

There is also another type of abstract classified on how it is structured: structured abstract. This abstract can be distinguished easily from other abstracts because of how it is structured. It has labelled before every section (e.g Background, Method, Result, and Conclusion). Some journals might ask the writers to differentiate each label into a few lines or paragraphs while other journals might still want to incorporate the label to be in one paragraph abstract (See Sample Abstract 4). All writers should note that the structure of an abstract should always follow the guideline of the journal, conference, or publishers.

Abstract Sample 1

CPM: Context, Problem, and Main Point

The study of the self-protective behaviours of dairy cows suffering dipteral insect infestation is important for evaluating the breeding environment and cows’ selective breeding (context of the previous research). The current practices for measuring diary cows’ self-protective behaviours are mostly by human observation, which is not only tedious but also inefficient and inaccurate (problem). In this paper, we show that an automatic monitoring system based on video analysis can more effectively analyse dairy cows’ self-protective behaviours and the living environment in the process of dairy cow breeding and management (main point).

The example above is modified from Li Jia, et.al. (2018).

Sample 1 begins with a context from the previous research and follows by the problem of the ideal situation. Based on the problems, the writers provide solution as the main point. The main point also includes the result of the study “effectively analyse”. In other words, this abstract include:

1. Introduction (from previous research)
2. Main problem
3. Aim and Result

Abstract Sample 2

CPL (Context, Problem, and Launching Point) or Descriptive Abstract

The study of the self-protective behaviours of dairy cows suffering dipteral insect infestation is important for evaluating the breeding environment and cows’ selective breeding (context of the previous research). The current practices for measuring diary cows’ self-protective behaviours are mostly by human observation, which is not only tedious but also inefficient and inaccurate (problem). In this paper, we develop an automatic monitoring system based on video analysis (aim). First, an improved optical flow tracking algorithm based on Shi-Tomasi corner detection is presented. Then, a detection algorithm is used to calculate the number of tail, leg, and head movements by using an artificial neural network. The accuracy range of the tail and head and the recall rate was analysed. (Launching point / method).

The example above is modified from Li Jia, et.al. (2018).

One way of making the readers curious is writing an abstract without the result. However, not all journal or publishers use this format. Moreover, CPL is well known as a descriptive abstract. Descriptive abstract does not provide results and conclusion of the research. It incorporates key words found in the text and may include the purpose, methods, and scope of the research. In summary, CPL includes:

1. Introduction
2. Main Problem
3. Aim
4. Methods

Abstract Sample 3

CPS (Context, Problem, Summary, and or main point) or Informational Abstract

The study of the self-protective behaviours of dairy cows suffering dipteral insect infestation is important for evaluating the breeding environment and cows’ selective breeding (context of the previous research). The current practices for measuring diary cows’ self-protective behaviors are mostly by human observation, which is not only tedious but also inefficient and inaccurate (problem). In this paper, we develop an automatic monitoring system based on video analysis. First, an improved optical flow tracking algorithm based on Shi-Tomasi corner detection is presented. By combining the morphological features of head, leg, and tail movements, this method effectively reduces the number of Shi-Tomasi points, eliminates interference from background movement, reduces the computational complexity of the algorithm, and improves detection accuracy. The detection algorithm is used to calculate the number of tail, leg, and head movements by using an artificial neural network. The accuracy range of the tail and head reached [0.88, 1] and the recall rate was [0.87, 1] (summary / aim, method, and result). The method proposed in this paper provides objective measurements that can help researchers to more effectively analyze dairy cows’ self-protective behaviors and the living environment in the process of dairy cow breeding and management. (main point/ conclusion)

The example above is taken from Li Jia, et.al. (2018).

Unlike Abstract Sample 1 and 2, CPS abstract includes all elements that you might find in a full paper. CPS includes summary of aim, method, and result. It ends with a main point or conclusion. The main points included in Sample 1 and 3 is similar as they provide readers of what they will find in the paper. Which is the main point of what the readers would like to know before deciding to read the full text or not. In conclusion, the CPS abstract includes:

1. Background
2. Main problem
3. Aim
4. Methods
5. Main Results
6. Conclusions

Abstract Sample 4: Structured Abstract

Purpose: The purpose was to evaluate the use of Web-based library resources by third-year medical students.

Setting/Participants/Resources: Third-year medical students (147) in a twelve-week multidisciplinary primary care rotation in community and ambulatory settings.

Methodology: Individual user surveys and log file analysis of Website were used.

Results/Outcomes: Twenty resource topics were compiled into a website to provide students with access to electronic library resources from any community-based clerkship location. These resource topics, covering subjects such as hypertension and back pain, linked to curriculum training problems, full-text journal articles, MEDLINE searches, electronic book chapters, and relevant Websites. More than half of the students (69%) accessed the Website on a daily or weekly basis. Over 80% thought the Website was a valuable addition to their clerkship.

Discussion/Conclusion: Web-based information resources can provide curriculum support to students for whom access to the library is difficult and time consuming.

The sample abstract above is taken from Tannery et.al. (2002)

Structured abstract provides the label of each section included so the readers can easily spot what they are trying to look for in a paper. There is no exact label that should be put in a structured abstract. The requirements will be different on each conference or journal.

Writing an Abstract

There are many ways in writing an abstract. You may need to find what is best for you because everyone has different techniques. One thing to note, you need to always start by finding the main ideas of every section (Introduction, Method, Result, Discussion, and Conclusion) you have in your full paper. Some different strategies of writing an abstract can be seen on the link below:

1. “Writing an Abstract” by George Mason University Writing Center
2. “Writing an Abstract” by University of Adelaide Writing Center
3. “How to write an Abstract” by University of North Carolina Wilmington Writing Center
4. “Writing an Abstract” by University of Colorado Writing Center
5. “Abstract” by University of Nevada Reno Writing and Speaking Center

References

Bailey, Stephen. (2015). Academic Writing: A Handbook for International Students (4th ed). Routledge.

Booth, C.W., Colomb, G.G., Williams.M.J., Bizup, J., & FitzGerald, T.W. (2016). The Craft of research (4th Ed.). Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.

Greene, S. & Lidinsky, A. (2015). From Inquiry to Academic Writing: A Practical Guide (3^rd Ed). Bedford/St. Martin’s.

Jameson, A.R., & Kostinski, B.A. (2002). When is Rain Steady?. Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology. 41(1). https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0450(2002)041<0083:WIRS>2.0.CO;2

Li, Jia., Wu, P., Kang, f., Zhang, L., Xuan, c. (2018). Study on the Detection of Dairy Cows’ Self-Protective Behaviors Based on Vision Analysis. Advances in Multimedia, Vol. 2018. https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/9106836

Sirithunge, C., Buddhika, G.A., Jayasekara, P., & Chandima, P. D. (2020). An Evaluation of Human Conversational Preferences in Social Human-Robot Interaction. Applied Bionics and Biomechanics. Vol. 2021. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/3648479

SJSU Writing Center.2020. https://www.sjsu.edu/writingcenter/docs/handouts/Abstracts.pdf

Tannery, N. H., Foust, J. E., Gregg, A. L., Hartman, L. M., Kuller, A. B., Worona, P., & Tulsky, A. A. (2002). Use of Web-based library resources by medical students in community and ambulatory settings. Journal of the Medical Library Association : JMLA, 90(3), 305–309.

Meilisa Sindy Astika Ariyanto. October 8, 2021.

“What is Plagiarism” by ClickView (2014). The video can be seen from ClickView YouTube Channel

Plagiarism Issue

Plagiarism is a serious issue in the academic field. It is critical to understand that plagiarism is the intentional use or copying of other people’s ideas or works (Swales & Feak, 2012). The video above is presented to help you understand what plagiarism is. As White mentions in the video, you can plagiarize unintentionally because you don’t have enough understanding of plagiarism (ClickView, 2014). You also may deal with heavy consequences if you plagiarize someone, thus, you should understand and prevent plagiarism before you get yourself in trouble.

Degrees of Plagiarism 

To help you understand more about plagiarism, some situations can be used as examples to identify how something can be identified as plagiarism. Some situations that can be considered as plagiarism may include one or several points from the following list taken from Bailey (2015):

1. Giving citation but only change a few words
2. Giving no citation to a copy-paste text
3. Giving no citation to classmates’ text/ paragraphs 
4. Quoting and citing someone’s ideas without using quotation marks
5. Failing in self-citing previous work that has been published 
6. Misspelling the author’s name

 More information about plagiarism examples can be accessed here

1. “Examples of Plagiarism” by Bowdoin College  
2. “Examples of Plagiarism” by Northern Illinois University 
3. “Academic Integrity” by Princeton University

With the aforementioned information and examples of plagiarism, you should have a better idea of what constitutes a plagiarism, particularly in the higher education. It is time for you to take extra precautions when dealing with the use of someone else’s work. Not to mention, plagiarism practice is detectable, especially when you find several writing styles in one paper, off-topic writing, unrelated citation to the writing topic, incoherent ideas, or give-away presence (Baggaley in Librero, 2012). An experienced reader, editors, or reviewers can easily spot plagiarism practice. You may get severe consequences if you are found to plagiarize someone.

Consequences of plagiarism

Knowing that plagiarism can be detected easily, we should not take the plagiarism issue lightly. Some consequences might occur because we fail to acknowledge someone. You may fail a course or even drop out of college if you deal with plagiarism issue (Bailey, 2015). I believe that no one wants to have such experience. Some links below will help you understand the consequences of plagiarism more:

1. “The consequences of Plagiarism” by Excelsior Online Writing Lab
2. “The ten consequences of Plagiarism” by IRAFPA Institute
3. “6 Consequences of Plagiarism” by ithenticate

Avoiding Plagiarism

Many prior research reveal that students lack the information required to understand plagiarism and how to avoid it (Voelker et al, 2012; Probett, 2011). This condition is certainly common among beginner writers.  To help you avoid plagiarism, there are some principles adopted from Turabian (2013) that you need to note:

1. Use quotation marks to indicate other people’s ideas  
2. Cite every source you use to indicate that the ideas are not yours
3. Do not patchwriting or paraphrase too closely
4. Avoid being ignorance or innocent intentionally  

More strategies for avoiding plagiarism can be read on the following websites

1. “Steps to Avoiding Plagiarism” by University of Arizona Writing Center
2. “Modules: Plagiarism Prevention Modules” by Walden University Writing Center
3. “Plagiarism Prevention” by The Chicago School of Professional Psychology Writing Center
4. “Understanding and Avoiding Plagiarism” by Hixon Writing Center
5. “Avoiding Plagiarism” by Purdue Online Writing Lab

References 

ClickView. (2014, May 23). What is Plagiarism. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-SoAISJrULw 

Bailey, Stephen. (2015). Academic Writing: A Handbook for International Students (4th ed). Routledge.

Librero, F. Felix. (2012). Writing Your Thesis: A Practical Guide for Students. University of the Philippines Open University

Probett, C. (2011). Plagiarism prevention. Business Communication Quarterly, 74(2), 170-172.

Swales, M.J., & Feak, B.C. (2012). Academic Writing for Graduate Students: Essential Skills and Tasks (3rd Ed.). University of Michigan Press

Turabian, L. Kate. (2013). A Manual for Writers of Research Papers, Theses, and Dissertations. Rev. Ed. The University of Chicago Press

Voelker, T., Love, L., & Pentina, I. (2012). Plagiarism: What they don’t know. Journal of Education for Business, 87(1), 36-41.

Meilisa Sindy Astika Ariyanto. September 11, 2021.

Citation

One way of avoiding plagiarism is citing. Citation is an acknowledgment or credit given to someone else’s idea that we use (Librero, 2012). Citation is one method of avoiding plagiarism and a critical idea in maintaining academic integrity. You are being honest with other people’s works by ensuring that you have correctly cited someone because “other people’s ideas are treated as an intellectual property” (Geyte, 2013, p.101). Therefore, properly citing others’ works will help you prevent plagiarism, acquire the trust of your readers, and gain scientific or social value (Booth et.al., 2016). To cite properly, you have to understand in-text citation and reference word to refer to someone’s else idea.

In-text citation 

One way of citing a source is using in-text citation. In-text citation can be defined as putting citation “immediately after the source material—whether it’s a quotation, paraphrase, or summary” (Texas A&M University Writing Center, n.d). One thing to keep in mind is that the citation should adhere to a specific citation style, such as MLA, APA, or IEEE. Before submitting to a journal or conference, it is best to read the author guidelines. You can visit some websites below to assist you distinguishing various citation styles.

1. “MLA in a Nutshell” by Thompson Rivers University Library and Writing Center
2. “APA 7th in a Nutshell” by Thompson Rivers University Library and Writing Center
3. “IEEE Referencing Style Sheet” by University of Bath Library
4. “Harvard Referencing Style” by UGM
5. “Citing Sources” by Texas A&M University Writing Center
6. “Citations” by Thomspon Rivers University Writing Center

Reporting Verb for citation

Reporting verbs are used to refers to someone’s works. It is a common practice in the academic writing field. Reporting verbs can be written in the present tense to indicate a recent work or past tense to indicate an older source (Bailey, 2015). An example of reporting verbs can be seen in the following examples

• Carla & Margareth (2021) describe …..
• Lagnan (2020) supports……..
• Dorothy (2019) discovers……

Notice the bold words on the examples above (state, supports, and discovers). These words are the examples of reporting verbs. The reporting verb “describe” for example, is used to simply state Carla’s & Margareth’s statement about something. Meanwhile, “supports” is used to state Lagnan’s belief or agreement over something. To conclude, different reporting verbs might have a different intention, thus, knowing different verbs and their meaning is useful to help you use them correctly. Some links below provide many lists of reporting verbs that you can use in your writing:

1. “Reporting Verbs” by University of Technology Sydney
2. “Verbs for reporting” by The University of Adelaide Writing Centre
3. “Verbs for Referring to Sources” by Martine Johnston from International Student Centre of University of Toronto
4. “Reporting Verbs” by Thompson Rivers University Writing Center
5. “Using Reporting Verbs” by San Jose State University Writing Center

References

Bailey, Stephen. (2015). Academic Writing: A Handbook for International Students (4th ed). Routledge.

Booth, C.W., Colomb, G.G., Williams.M.J., Bizup, J., & FitzGerald, T.W. (2016). The Craft of research (4^th Ed.). Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.

Geyte, V.E. (2013). Writing: Learn to Write Better Academic Essays. Harper Collins Publishers.

Librero, R. F. (2012). Writing Your Thesis: A Practical Guide for Students. UP Open University.

Meilisa Sindy Astika Ariyanto. August 28, 2021.

Quotation

Quoting is another method of avoiding plagiarism. According to Geyte (2013), quotation refers to utilizing someone else’s precise words in a quote, often known as direct speech in English grammar.  Different from paraphrasing or summarizing, quotation is using the exact author’s words without any attempt of summarizing or paraphrasing. However, it should be mentioned that the quotation should also include the citation. If you fail to properly cite your sources, you may face plagiarism charges. Furthermore, remember to utilize the relevant citation format (MLA, APA, IEEEE, etc.). The following example shows how to incorporate a quotation into a passage.

Example of quotation in APA style in-text citation format:

A beginner writer might be clueless about the importance of citation in writing. Anna (2019) also mentions that “80% of freshmen in a university fail to understand the importance of citing a source”. One of the reasons mentioned by Damian (2019) is “copying and pasting have been a cultural practice in a country”. 

For more rules of the citation formatting, visit the links below 

1. “MLA in a Nutshell” by Thompson Rivers University Library and Writing Center
2. “APA 7th in a Nutshell” by Thompson Rivers University Library and Writing Center
3. “IEEE Referencing Style Sheet” by University of Bath Library

When to use quotation

Before you quote, you should understand why you are quoting someone’s exact words. You can utilize a quotation If you are dealing with one of the following circumstances mentioned by Bailey (2015):

1. “When the original words express an idea in a distinctive way”. Sometimes, we do not want to lose the essence of the words that have been put together by a writer because of the way the ideas are expressed. In this case, a straight quotation is appropriate. However, you must make sure that you can frame these words or sentences well in your writing.
2. “When the original is more concise than your summary could be”. When you attempt to make a summary or paraphrase, you may find it hard to make your words as concise as the original words, hence, quoting the original words or sentences can be the best option.
3. “When the original version is well known”. A quotation is particularly useful when quoting a famous quote or scientific result of a researcher. However, familiarity cannot be a reason for you to choose a quotation for the importance is the idea that you are quoting.

Basic rules in quoting

When you know what source you want to quote, you can begin by copying the exact word to your writing. However, there are some basic rules you must adhere to in quoting. Adopted from Greene & Lidinsky (2015), here are some basic rules that you can follow:

1. Take an active stance. The quotation is for you to justify your argument.  
2. Do not quote only a line or two that can distort the whole point of another person’s idea.
3. Inform your reader about the quotation you are using by showing how the quotation can relate to your argument (for a long quotation that is usually written in blockquote; more than 3 or 4 lines).
4. Using the quotation blended with the grammar of your writing if you use short quotations (only one or two lines). 
5. Use punctuation to attach quotations (for short quotations).
6. Bailey (2015) adds to use reporting or reference verb (example: state, claim, or agree, etc.) in quoting.

The punctuation rules in quoting

Besides the rules above, there are some punctuation rules you must follow in quoting. Please refer to the punctuation rules taken from Bailey (2015) below:

1. A long quotation can be written in a smaller font or in a block quote that does not require quotation marks
2. If some words are deleted, use “……” (without the quotation marks) to indicate what is missing
3. If some words are inserted, put the words inside of these [….] marks
4. A double quotation is used when there is a quotation inside of a quotation

Quotation sandwich is a term that refers to a way of framing a quotation in your text. Three elements make up a quotation sandwich: (1) the introduction sentence, (2) the quote, and (3) the explanation of the quote (Graff & Birkenstein, 2018). Some examples of quotation sandwich (in APA citation style) are as follow

1. Railey (2015) also makes a claim further by saying that “………………”
2. According to Railey (2015), “………….…..”. His suggestion is in line with our…..
3. As a prominent figure in the education field, Railey (2015) puts it “…………………”

 For other resources about quoting and quotation sandwich, please refers to some links below

1. “Integrating Quotation” by Massasoit Community College Writing Center
2. “Suggested Ways to Introduce Quotations” by Columbia College Tutoring and Writing Assistance
3. “Quoting authors” by University of New England

Introductory Phrases / reporting verbs

Just like on citation page, quoting also need reporting verbs. Refers to some links below for several lists of reporting verbs.

1. “Reporting Verbs” by University of Technology Sydney
2. “Verbs for reporting” by The University of Adelaide Writing Centre
3. “Verbs for Referring to Sources” by Martine Johnston from International Student Centre of University of Toronto
4. “Reporting Verbs” by Thompson Rivers University Writing Center
5. “Using Reporting Verbs” by San Jose State University Writing Center

References

Bailey, Stephen. (2015). Academic Writing: A Handbook for International Students (4th ed). Routledge.

Geyte, V.E. (2013). Writing: Learn to Write Better Academic Essays. Harper Collins Publishers.

Graff, G. & Birkenstein, C. (2018). They say I say: The Moves that Matter in Academic Writing (4^th Ed.) W.W Norton & Company.

Greene, S. & Lidinsky, A. (2015). From Inquiry to Academic Writing: A Practical Guide (3^rd Ed). Bedford/St. Martin’s.

Meilisa Sindy Astika Ariyanto. September 8, 2021. 

Paraphrasing

Paraphrasing or better known as indirect quotations means writing someone’s idea using our own words. It’s critical to maintain the original text’s or thoughts’ meaning when paraphrasing. Richard & Schmidt (2010) also defines paraphrasing as writing with different words/phrases. Although we use our own words to express the original ideas, paraphrase does not always result in a shorter text (Hirvela & Du, 2013). It should be noted that paraphrasing is different from summarizing. Finally, a correct citation to credit the author needs to be included(Monash University, n.d). Plagiarism could occur if you don’t cite your sources properly.

What paraphrasing is not:

• Paraphrasing is not patchworking (Klements, 2021).
• Paraphrasing is different from direct quotation (Wallwork, 2011).
• Common knowledge does not need to be paraphrased (The Writing Center; the University of Wisconsin-Madison, n.d)
• Technical words do not need to be paraphrased (Wallwork, 2011)

 When to paraphrase:

• If you are dealing with facts or definitions (Monash University, n.d; Wallwork, 2011).
• If you want to develop your idea or make a more persuasive text (Hirvela & Du, 2013).

How to Paraphrase:

The list below shows tips to paraphrase

1. Read the original text.
2. Make notes on the important words or technical words while reading.
3. Close the original text so you can focus on writing with your own words.
4. Try to state what you have read using your own words. Use the list of important words to help you. 
5. Write it down using your own words.
6. You may want to proofread, edit, and revise your text.
7. Do not forget to cite.

 To help you edit your paraphrased text, some tips adopted from Wallwork (2011) below can be used.

• Using synonyms, for examples:

Claim (verb)→ synonym → argue or assert

Liquid (Noun) → synonym → fluid

• Changing part of speech, for example from a verb to noun or noun to adjective

Analyze (verb)→ analysis (Noun)

Classify (verb) → classification (Noun)

• Changing nouns or pronouns from singular or plural
• Changing the verb-form, for example, help → helping /helped
• Changing from personal to impersonal style
• Reversing the order of the ideas

If you need more tips to paraphrase and understand more about paraphrasing, consider to visit some links below:

1. “Paraphrase: How do I paraphrase” by University of Toronto
2. “Paraphrasing Effectively” by University of Illinois Springfield
3. “Using Evidence: Paraphrase” by Walden University Writing Center
4. “Quoting and Paraphrasing” by University of Wisconsin-Madison Writing Center
5. “Quoting, Paraphrasing, and Summarizing” by The University of Arizona Global Campus Writing Center
6. “Paraphrasing for Beginners” by University College London Writing Center
7. “Paraphrase: Write it in Your Own Words” by Purdue Online Writing Lab

References

Hirvela,  A., &  Du,  Q.  (2013). ‘Why am  I  paraphrasing?’:  Undergraduate ESL writers’ engagement  with source-based  academic  writing and reading.  Journal  of  English  for Academic  Purposes,  12(2), 87-98.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeap.2012.11.005

Klements, Kurtis. (2021). Patchworking.  https://purdueglobalwriting.center/2021/01/29/patchwriting/

Richards, J.C., & Schmidt, R.W. (2010). Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics(4th Ed). Pearson Education.

The Writing Center; University of Wisconsin-Madison. (n.d). Quoting and Paraphrasing. https://writing.wisc.edu/handbook/assignments/quotingsources/

Wallwork, Adrian. (2011). English for Writing Research Papers. New York: Springer. Springer.

Meilisa Sindy Astika Ariyanto. August 11, 2021

Cohesion

Have you ever read a paragraph or text and had the impression that the ideas between the sentences are jumping and unconnected?  In that case, there might be a cohesion issue in the text. Cohesion in a text gives the flow and directs our readers to follow our ideas. Lexically, a text with cohesion means it sticks together by reference words or conjunction (Bailey, 2015). Cohesion is important as it can direct our readers to follow our arguments easily. Lacking cohesion on a text, on the other hand, can confuse your reader and decrease the readability of your text. Thus, it is critical to improve the text cohesiveness.

“An Introduction of Cohesion in Academic Writing” by AWUC (2015). The video can be seen from AWUC YouTube Channel

Enhancing Cohesion

Cohesion can be enhanced using several strategies such as using reference words, conjunction, repeated words/ideas, or ellipsis. The video above explains how you can enhance your cohesion using a pronoun, lexical signpost, repetition, or anaphoric nouns (AWUC, 2015). Two common methods are discussed further below.

1. Using reference words (Bailey, 2015)

Some examples of reference words are he, she, their, it, these, their, etc. Let’s look at the Sample texts below

Sample text 1:

“During the COVID-19 emergency, many different human activities have been strongly modified or banned. The pandemic has made many people around the world stay at home at some point in time, strongly limiting actions and unfortunately personal freedom. These restrictions have been necessary to save lives” (Caniato et.al., 2021)

 Notice how the words “these restriction” are used. It refers to the idea of the previous sentences. It sticks and joins the sentences together because it clear to the readers that “these restriction” refers to the banned activities during the covid-19 pandemic limiting people and their freedom.

Sample text 2: 

“Velcro is a fabric fastener used with clothes and shoes. It was invented by a Swiss engineer called George de Mestral. His idea was derived from studying the tiny hooks found on some plant seeds. They cling to animals and help disperse the seeds. Velcro has two sides, one of which is covered in small hooks and the other in loops. When they are pressed together, they form a strong bond” (Bailey, 2015)

 The paragraph above shows a connection between the sentences by using the reference words (underlined). Instead of repeating the word Velcro in the second sentence, the writer replaces it with “It” to refer to the Velcro. Secondly, instead of writing the name of the engineer in the third sentence, the writer uses simply “his”, to show that he refers to him. It is important to note that you can use reference words if what you want to refer to is clear and the reader can easily spot it.

2. Conjunction or linking words

Linking words are used based on their language functions. For examples:

• Because, as a result, or therefore are used to show cause and effect
• However, although, or but are used to show opposition or contrasting ideas
• In addition, and, or furthermore are used to show addition

These words can be used to make your sentences stick together, thus, enabling the readers to follow your logical flow easily. An example of using these in a paragraph can be seen below.

Sample Text 3:

“Previous studies estimated a wide range of uncertainty in premature deaths attributed to ambient air pollution (AAP) from residential energy use of between 73,000 and 511,000 (ref. 15). However, none of these studies looked at how residential emissions of air pollutants or mortality are distributed across households or trace other emissions sources to the household consumption that triggers them. As a result, it is unclear how the contribution of households to AAP compares to the mortality risks that they face from.” (Rao et.al., 2021).

Other strategies of enhancing cohesion can be access through the following links:

1. “Cohesion” by Gustavus Adolphus College writing Center
2. “Flow and Cohesion” by UMass Amherst Writing Center
3. “Revising for Cohesion” by Purdue University Writing Lab
4. “Improving Cohesion” by The University of Melbourne
5. “Connecting Ideas Through Transition” by University of Wisconsin Writing Center

References

Bailey, Stephen. (2015). Academic Writing: A Handbook for International Students (4th ed). Routledge.

Caniato, M., Bettarello, F. & Gasparella, A. (2021). Indoor and Outdoor Noise Changes due to the COVID-19 Lockdown and their Effects on Individuals’ Expectations and Preferences. Scientific Reports, 11, 16533. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-96098-w

Rao, N.D., Kiesewetter, G., Min, J. et al. (2021). Household Contributions to and Impacts from Air Pollution in India. Nat Sustain. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-021-00744-0

Meilisa Sindy Astika Ariyanto. September 17, 2021.

Coherence

Coherence must be improved in order to build unity in a text. If cohesion relates to how smoothly your thoughts flow from one sentence to the next, coherence refers to how logically structured and presented your ideas are. A paragraph can have cohesion but lack coherence. For example:

Sample Text 1

Automated Writing Evaluation (AWE) tools have become increasingly popular, especially in the educational field. Many university students in Indonesia, for example, have begun to use AWE to help proofread and edit their article journal drafts. It happens because of AWE’s automated feedback, explanation of errors, and user-friendly services. If they find writing important, they might find many issues in writing. Thus, many students find this tool to be needed in enhancing their drafts.  

The above sample paragraph discusses AWE and how it has grown popular in educational field. To discuss the topic and make the paragraph cohesive, some reference and linking words are used such as, because of, if, these, and thus. Despite using some cohesive devices, this paragraph is not coherent. Try to find the reason why the italic sentences cause the paragraph to be lack of coherence. Consider watching the video below to help you find the answer.

“Coherence in Writing” by Mometrix Academy (2023). The video can be seen from this link 

Enhancing Coherence

To create unity and coherence in your text there are three ways adopted from Greene & Lidinsky (2015) that you can refer to:

1. “Use details that follow logically from your topic sentence and maintain a single focus”. Sample Text 1 shows the opposite of this strategy. You can maintain unity and coherence in your text by focusing on one main idea in each paragraph. Remove or revise the supporting details that do not resonate with the main idea.
2. “Repeat keywords to guide your readers”. Repeating keywords is done to let your readers know that the sentences are connected and united to the same idea. Sample text 1 can be one example of this strategy. You can notice how the word AWE is used in the paragraphs.

“Use transition words to link ideas from different sentences”. Similar to Cohesion, achieving coherence can be done by using transition or linking words such as because, although, however, in addition, furthermore, etc. One thing to be noted, these words have different language functions. You might make your text incoherent by using these words incorrectly. 

For more strategies in creating coherence in your text, visit the links below:

1. “On Paragraphs” by Purdue Online Writing Lab
2. “Flow” by University of North Carolina Writing Center
3. “Paragraph Unity and Coherence” by American University Writing Lab
4. “Coherence” by RMIT University Learning Lab
5. “Flow and Lexical Coherence” by Loyola Marymount University Library

References

Greene, S. & Lidinsky, A. (2015). From Inquiry to Academic Writing: A Practical Guide (3^rd Ed). Bedford/St. Martin’s.

Skillcourse. (2019, October 12). Cohesion & Coherence. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TDUgsLZzTTI

Meilisa Sindy Astika Ariyanto. September 21, 2021.

“Paragraph Structure” by Smrt English (2012). The video can be seen from Smrt English YouTube Channel

Basic Paragraph Structure

What is a paragraph? “A paragraph is a group of sentences that deal with a single topic” (Bailey, 2015). This single topic is better known as a topic sentence. Many scholars would put this sentence at the beginning of their paragraphs, however, as Booth et.al. (2016) suggest, the topic sentence can appear at the last sentence of the paragraph as well. 

When you are a beginner writer, it might be difficult to develop a paragraph, not to mention a whole academic paper. You might also get overwhelmed to write many paragraphs without any guidance and experience. Therefore it is crucial to understand how a paragraph can be developed starting from knowing the parts of a paragraph. In writing a paragraph, there is a common structure used such as topic sentence, supporting sentence, and concluding sentence (Heard & Tucker, 2012).

Topic sentence

A topic sentence is the main idea of a paragraph. It is important to understand that one paragraph covers one topic sentence that is developed from the main idea. Mostly, the topic sentence appears at the beginning of the first sentence of a paragraph. Adopted from Heard & Tucker (2012) there are 3 kinds of topic sentences: 

1. Too general. 

Example: Exercise is very beneficial.

This topic sentence is considered too general because there are various exercises that it is impossible to be explained all in one paragraph.

2. Too specific

Example: Doing plank for thirty minutes a day will strengthen your cardio-vascular system by thirty percent.

This topic sentence is considered too specific because there is a possibility that there is nothing to say to support this sentence.

3. Adequate

Example: There rate of car ownership varies across social status in India.

This topic is considered adequate as you can develop this with the variation mentioned in the topic sentence.

Between the three examples, the adequate topic sentence certainly is the desired one. Some links below can help you learn to develop your topic sentence:

1. “Paragraphs: Topic Sentence” by Walden University Writing Center
2. “Topic Sentence” by Wheaton College Writing Center
3. “Topic Sentence” by Purdue Online Writing Lab

Supporting Sentences

Supporting sentences are more specific than the topic sentence. These sentences are developed based on the topic sentence; thus, you cannot put new ideas that do not belong to the topic sentence. Some details that you can put to develop the supporting ideas, such as:

1. Details of the main idea
2. Statistics 
3. Examples
4. Opinion/ argument
5. Literature review

Some ideas to develop these details into your paragraph can be accessed through the following links:

1. “Supporting Paragraph” by Northern Illinois University
2. “Body Paragraphs” by University of Arizona Global Campus Writing Center
3. “Developing Supporting Paragraph” by Texas A&M University

Concluding Sentence

A Concluding sentence is used to signal the end of your paragraph. It is optional and does not have to be written in every paragraph. In an academic paper, we might find the concluding sentence in the last paragraph the Introduction section, or possibly in the literature review. Having a concluding sentence can help you summarize your points or as a cohesive device that can link your idea to the next paragraph (The University of Sydney, n.d).  

Overall, some links below can be used if you want to enhance your skill in writing a paragraph 

1. “Academic Writing; Writing Paragraphs Exercises” by UEfAP
2. “Beginner Paragraph” by University of New England
3. “Paragraphing” by Academic English UK

More Useful links

1. “Paragraphs” by University of North Carolina – Chapel Hill Writing Center
2. “Paragraph Structure” by Hamilton College Writing Center
3. “Writing Clear Paragraphs” by Monash University Research & Learning Online
4. “On Paragraphs” by Purdue Online Writing Lab
5. “Paragraph Structure” by University of Nevada, Reno

References

Bailey, Stephen. (2015). Academic Writing: A Handbook for International Students (4th ed). Routledge.

Booth, C.W., Colomb, G.G., Williams.M.J., Bizup, J., & FitzGerald, T.W. (2016). The Craft of research (4^th Ed.). The University of Chicago Press.

Meilisa Sindy Astika Ariyanto. August 31, 2021.

Presenting your Research Paper

There are a few things to consider before giving a presentation at an international conference. If you’re attending a conference for the first time, you might be frustrated by the fact that you only have 15-20 minutes to present your entire work. To interest your listeners in a short amount of time, meticulous and prepared planning is therefore required. You must also recognize that the audience at a conference differs from that of readers. To present your work orally, you’ll need to take a different strategy. For example, use an attractive and easy to listen to approach in presenting points clearly and briefly for each section of your paper

The essence of your paper 

You might not be able to present all the things in your paper, so focus on the essence of the sections (Introduction, Method, Result, etc.) in your presentation. Here are some points adapted from Turabian (2013) that can be used

1. Introduction which may include the aim, problems why the aim is stated that why, and rationale of why you need to address the problem or what conceptual advantages your solution might have to the body of the knowledge
2. Summary of sub-argument if the argument is too big.
3. Summary of the method and stages using SmartArt graphics or figures
4. Summary of result and discussion
5. The practical or theoretical contribution of your research
6. Limitation of your study and future research suggestion

Originally, Turabian (2013) mentions three focuses such as:

1. Introduction which may include a brief literature review, Question, Consequences of not knowing an answer, Claim, and reasons,
2. Summary of sub-argument,
3. Methodology and how it solves the problems

You might also use these original points for your presentation, especially if you have a shorter time to present. In conclusion, your presentation should be clear, explicit, and brief yet organized. “Arrange your ideas coherently and express your ideas vividly” (Barker, 2010). Instead of putting a long text in your presentation, create phrases that describe each point above using points, bullets, or SmartArt graphics.

Preparation for the Presentation

After you have the essence of your paper ready, you can prepare:

1. Notes or cards for your presentation slides. Don’t scribble down every single word you’re going to say. At this point, you should be prepared to give a discussion and know every detail of your study report. The purpose of the note is for you to remind yourself of the critical facts that you could forget.
2. Possible questions your audience might ask. It’s not a bad idea to think about some questions your audience might ask about your presentation. This activity might also be beneficial for you to hone your critical skills. If you’re worried of getting questions, practice with your friends so you can be more prepared. It also might reduce your nervousness and fillers (um, mmhm, I think, so, well, etc.)

Presenting for listeners

Unlike your writing, your presentation is more informal, so there are some considerations that you might use when presenting:

1. Use a variation of pitch and tone (Tuhovsky, 2018). Your presentation should be engaging, even in tone, because you don’t want to make your listeners bored. Varying your tone and pitch may also suggest that you are not reading a text in front of you. It also shows that you are ready and master the content.
2. Make eye contact with your audience (Barker, 2010). It is important that you notice the audience instead of looking at your presentation material all the time because your audience is also a part of your presentation.
3. Use gestures and movements (Barker, 2010). Using gestures and moving around the room while presenting can energize the session. But using too many gestures or moving around many times, especially in a formal academic presentation, is not appropriate.
4. Ask one or two questions to your audience. In my experience, asking your audience question is one way of involving your audience in your session. The question, however, should not be too difficult to answer. For example, you can do a quick live poll to ask whether the audience knows a certain problem in your research domain.
5. Do not use language for writing because Language for writing and speaking are different. Don’t be too stiff as if you are reading your paper. You can address yourself using “I” or “we” and use some informal style such as the abbreviated forms of “don’t” or “shouldn’t”. You may also use some colloquial words and expressions such as “a lot of” or “thing”.

References

Barker, A. (2010). Improve your communication skills (2^nd Ed.). KoganPage.

Turabian, L. Kate. (2013). A Manual for Writers of Research Papers, Theses, and Dissertations. (Rev. Ed.). The University of Chicago Press.

Tuhovsky, I. (2018). 21 Days of Effective Communication: Everyday Habits and Exercises to Improve Your Communication Skills and Social Intelligence. Positive Psychology Coaching Series.

Meilisa Sindy Astika Ariyanto. Oktober 21, 2021

Download Proofreading Checklist document

Proofreading Checklist Video by Ms. Caroline Ward consist of 4 parts: Opening & Basics, Organization, Content, and Mechanics.

Click the + sign to access the links for each topic